Several fish species have each independently evolved electric organs by modifying ion channel proteins that normally function in muscle contraction. In humans and other vertebrates, similar mutations of ion channel genes can cause severe muscle abnormalities, epilepsy, and heart problems. How could these fish divert the function of their ion channels to evolve electric organs without suffering harmful severe muscle and heart problems?

Monarch butterflies have brightly colored orange wings with black patterns on them, making them easily visible to birds that eat butterflies and moths, yet birds rarely eat the monarchs. likewise, the monarch caterpillars are brightly striped yellow and white and black, and they also are rarely eaten by birds, although some wasps will attack them and feed them to their young. what can be inferred from these observations? monarchs must threaten and attack birds, but not wasps. monarchs have a way of discouraging bird predation that does not involve hiding. monarchs’ wings are so colorful that most birds must find them difficult to eat. monarchs lay more eggs than other less conspicuous butterflies.