Prepare income statements based on variable costing for each of the 2 years. 2.Prepare income statements based on absorption costing for each of the 2 years. 3.Prepare a numerical reconciliation and explanation of the difference between operating income for each year under absorption costing and variable costing. 4.Critics have claimed that a widely used accounting system has led to undesirable buildups of inventory levels. (a) Is variable costing or absorption costing more likely to lead to such buildups? Why? (b) What can be done to counteract undesirable inventory buildups?

The question is incomplete, it is missing the accounts and numbers, so I looked for a similar question:

The Rehe Comany sells its razors at $3 per unit. The company uses a first-in, first-out actual costing system. A fixed manufacturing cost rate is computed at the end of each year by dividing the actual fixed manufacturing costs by the actual production units. The following data are related to its first two years of operation:

                   2011 2012

Sales 1000 units  1200 units

Costs:

Variable manufacturing  700 500

Fixed manufacturing  700 700

Variable operating (marketing) 1000 1200

Fixed operating (marketing)  400 400

                                                           2011                  2012

Sales                                               1000 units         1200 units

Production                                          1400                  1000  

Costs:  

Variable manufacturing                      $700               $500

per unit $0.50

Fixed manufacturing                           $700               $700

Variable operating (marketing)         $1000             $1200

Fixed operating (marketing)               $400               $400

cogs under absorption costing 2011 = ($1,400 / 1,400) x 1,000 = $1,000

cogs under absorption costing 2012 = $400 + ($1,200 / 1,000) x 800 = $1,360

1.                                    INCOME STATEMENTS

                                      VARIABLE COSTING

                                                             2011                    2012

Total sales revenue:                        $3,000                $3,600            

Opening inventory:                               ($0)                 ($200)

Variable manufacturing:                   ($700)                 ($500)

Ending inventory:                               $200                   $100

Gross contribution margin:             $2,500               $3,000

Variable operating:                         ($1,000)              ($1,200)  

Contribution margin:                        $1,500                $1,800  

Fixed manufacturing:                         ($700)                ($700)

Fixed operating:                                ($400)                ($400)

Net operating income:                       $400                  $700

2.                                   INCOME STATEMENTS

                                   ABSORPTION COSTING

                                                             2011                    2012

Total sales revenue:                        $3,000                $3,600            

COGS:                                             ($1,000)                ($1,360)

Gross margin:                                  $2,000                $2,240

Operating costs:                             ($1,400)               ($1,600)

Net operating income:                       $600                   $640

3. Under variable costing, closing inventory = 400 units x $0.50 (variable production costs per unit) = $200.

Under absorption costing, closing inventory = 400 units x $1 (production cost per unit) = $400

Since closing inventory is $200 higher under absorption costing, then net operating income during 2011 increases by $200.

4. a) Variable costing is more likely to result in inventory buildups. Since variable costing determines the value of closing inventory only using variable manufacturing costs, their value is much lower. E.g. in this case the value of closing inventory 2011 under variable costing is $200, while under absorption costing it is $400. This means that less costs are transferred from one year to another.

b) Cost of goods sold must include all production costs (both variable and fixed). This way COGS costs cannot be over estimated during one year and under estimated the next.

definitely a

the answer would be voluntary exchange -

"the act of buyers and sellers freely and willingly engaging in market transactions. moreover, transactions are made in such a way that both the buyer and the seller are better off after the exchange than before it occurred."

hope this : )

-shy