When European ships arrived in China:

At the beginning of the 19th century.

Explanation:

Namely, during this period there was an intensification of colonial ideas, primarily by Britain. To protect their imperialist ideas, the British came into conflict with the Chinese authorities. The British illegally smuggled opium into a banned cinema. The Chinese, by decision, threatened British interests and came into conflict with China, which was quickly defeated by antiquated weapons. She was forced to sign the unfavourable Treaty of Nanking in 1842, which had to allow the import of opium, and Hong Kong became a British colony. Such circumstances were embarrassing for a China that did not reconcile with the current situation. This is why the Second Opium War took place between 1856 and 1860. The French first and foremost assisted the British. To a lesser extent, America and Russia also provided assistance, and China was defeated and had to accept all the demands of the European colonial powers.

b.   jim crow laws were enacted in northern states.

b toward the volcano.landward. the landward side of something is the side nearest to the land or facing the land, rather than the sea.