The Roman Empire had thriving urban centers, high literacy, and a centralized government, but in the early Middle Ages was none of these things. The Germanic-speaking people who invaded England from Central Europe and settled there were called the . Under the system, soldiers would be rewarded for their services to the king with gifts of land and other resources that came from battles won. The first Carolingian leader to become king was . After Charlemagne's rule, his grandsons' argument about who was the rightful heir of the empire led to the division of the empire into realms. One reason the were so successful at invading was that they engineered fast, versatile ships that could land almost anywhere. A new class of people called the , who gained wealth in towns, formed after the age of invasions. In the Controversy, church and state authorities argued over who had the greater authority to appoint bishops. In a crusade, the calls a war to defend the church against other faiths. According to , philosophical and theological questions could be resolved with religious-based reasoning. Respond to the following based on your reading. England became one of the strongest states in the Middle Ages. Explain the factors that contributed to its success. Compare and contrast the central intellectual movements' ideas in the Middle Ages. Then assess which ones challenged society's values the most.