Acovered entity may use or disclose phi without an authorization, or documentation of a waiver or an alteration of authorization, for all of the following except:
a. limited data set with an approved data use agreement.
b. data that does not cross state lines when disclosed by the covered entity.
c. use of decedents’ information, with certain representations by the researcher.
d. activities preparatory to research, with certain representations by the researcher.

In e. c. tolman's experiment, some rats were trained to run through mazes for standard food goals, while other rats were allowed to explore the mazes for 10 days without food goals or other rewards. later, when food rewards were placed in a box at the far end of the maze, the previously unrewarded rats reached the food box as quickly as the rewarded rats after only one or two trials. this experiment demonstrated that the rats had the ability to form of their surroundings.