In the paper wasp, although all females in a nest are physiologically capable of reproducing, a single female monopolizes almost all reproduction, while other females rear her offspring. in some nests, female are unrelated to the reproducing female. the most likely explanation for this is that these gain benefits, such as
a. indirect; an increase in the reproductive output of the reproducing female
b. direct; an increase in the reproductive output of the reproducing female
c. direct; possibility of taking over the reproductive role when the reproducing female dies
d. indirect; possibility of taking over the reproductive role when the reproducing female dies