Marcello believes that learning is achieved through the conditioning and extinction of specific stimulus-response pairs. ming-li believes that learning is achieved through the testing of rules or hypotheses.
both marcello and ming-li are describing their for learning.

a. logical positivism structures
b. duhem-quine principles
c. frameworks
d. paradigms

D. paradigms                              

Explanation:

Paradigms: The term paradigm is defined as the phenomenon that consists of perspective, standards, and set of ideas. This defines a process through which a person looks at something and it encompasses a lot of things including scientific, academic, and business world.

In other words, it consists of basic ways of thinking, assumptions, and methods of a particular study that can generally be accepted by different members of a specific group.

In the question above, Marcello and Ming-Li are describing their paradigms for learning.

they could find out our specific needs.