Carmen was assigned a term paper at the start of her Social Psychology class. She figured it would only take two days to write the paper so she did not start it until two days before it was due. Halfway through the second day Carmen was devastated; she wasn't even halfway done yet! Carmen's underestimation of how long it would take her to complete her paper is an example of:.
a. planning fallacy.
b. learned helplessness.
c. self-handicapping.
d. defensive pessimism.