Tolman believed that: a. if no reinforcement occurs, no learning occurs b. learning occurs independently of reinforcement c. reinforcement governs instrumental conditioning but not classical conditioning d. reinforcement governs classical conditioning but not instrumental conditioning

b. learning occurs independently of reinforcement

Explanation:

Edward C. Tolman was one of the famous American psychologists who was best known for his research on 'cognitive maps', latent learning theory, cognitive behaviorism, and intervening variable.

According to Tolman, an individual has the capability of doing more than merely responding to certain stimuli, instead, he or she acts on attitudes, beliefs, strive towards specific goals, and a few changing conditions. He was considered as the only behaviorists who don't accept the "stimulus-response theory", as he believed that reinforcement wasn't required for learning.

In the question above, the correct answer is option-b.