How did values and customs shape societies in medieval africa?

Early African societies, including those of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, had many characteristics in common. African towns often began as fortified villages and slowly grew into larger communities. They were government and trade centers, with markets filled with goods from faraway regions. African towns were home to artisans of metalwork, woodwork, pottery, and other crafts, as well as to farmers.

Most African societies did not have written languages, so much of our knowledge of them comes from descriptions recorded by foreign visitors, such as the Arab traveler Ibn Battuta. Although filled with information, visitors' reports were skewed as outside perspectives. Also, visitors usually came into contact only with the wealthy and the powerful. Their accounts tell little about ordinary people’s lives.

result of the incas claiming exclusive right over numerous traditional routes, some of which had been constructed centuries earlier mostly by the wari empire

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